Why do women make only 75% of the income of men Essay Example

Why do women make only 75% of the income of men? Essay Women are becoming better educated than men. Women already earn over one-half of all bachelors and masters degrees; they lag behind only in the number of doctorates conferred. Women, therefore, will be better qualified than men to suppose positions of authority. Better-educated women are less expected to accept career barriers created by such discrimination, more likely to distinguish discrimination for what it is, and more likely to act on the conviction that sex discrimination has no place in their lives. The female worker of the future is likely to be a mother of young children. Already, 64 percent of all married women with young children are working mothers; 37 percent of divorced, separated, and widowed mothers with young children are working or looking for work (Chapkis Wendy. 1995). These women are not expected to readily accept employment policies originated on the conjecture that a working mothers child-rearing responsibilities essentially conflict with her work responsibilities. As these women are better educated than past generations of working women, they are more expected to appeal to the courts to get legal relief from all employer-initiated biased conduct, policies, and practices. For almost four decades, this country has been engaged in forming workplace equality for persons of different races and ethnicities, and it has attained some success in that regard. At the same time, we have been engaged in forming a workplace that will take full benefit of and fairly compensate women. Whether we will succeed in attaining either of these goals remains an open question. We will write a custom essay sample on Why do women make only 75% of the income of men? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Why do women make only 75% of the income of men? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Why do women make only 75% of the income of men? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Because women usually have assumed primary familial accountability for the rearing of their children, men, relieved of such responsibilities, have performed well in jobs needing a near total commitment to the workplace. An employer can structure a job description that demands an inflexible work commitment, while ignoring the impact of such a commitment upon the (presumed male) workers family, as the employer can safely suppose that the workers wife will understand all child-rearing responsibilities. This is no longer the case in our society. The male workers wife is now more expected to be employed herself and thus is no longer accessible for full-time child care. But unenlightened employers continue in requiring the recognition of a work ethic that establishes the job as the central, if not the sole, precedence in a workers life. Those who agree to function in such a competence are sometimes referred to as â€Å"ideal workers.† (Davis James H., Alan B. Henkin, and Carol A. Singleton., 1994) Historically, employers have leaned to classify women as capable only of â€Å"womens work,† positions that subsist in relatively few occupations and rank amongst those with the lowest status and compensation. The job of women to such positions results in the segregation and stratification of women in the workplace. The consignment of women to occupations unreasonably female tends to extend their separated and stratified roles. Until recently, 95 percent of all secretaries, stenographers, and typists were women. Though a significant reduction in job segregation has occurred in professional positions, it continues in numerous other job categories. The Census Bureaus 2000 Statistical Abstract of the United States reveals the breakdown. Though Census Bureau statistics disclose some development in the hiring of women in some other job categories, women are still usually excluded from the male-dominated positions. Undoubtedly, some women who expect that they will be called upon to fulfill family responsibilities liberally choose to work in lower-paying and lower status positions; they may be hesitant to make a considerable investment in job training or to make the commitments needed to attain higher-paying and higher-status posts. But womens careers are evenly likely to be shaped by the job opportunities that employers historically have made accessible to women. Employers who falsely perceive women as exhibiting less commitment to their jobs feel justified in handing over them to high-turnover positions with low-turnover costs, and these jobs usually carry low pay and little status. In addition to encountering glass ceilings, male-dominated work environments, and job segregation and stratification, working women also deal with other areas of discrimination in todays workplace—discrimination against older women, against women of color, against professional women, and against women who are pregnant. To intensify matters, sexual harassment of women—of all ages, of all skin colors, in all job categories, and in all occupations and professions—permeates the workplace. Pay inequity for women has long been a common practice. Women, on occasion, have asserted unequal-pay claims under the umbrella of Title VII protections. To succeed, a complainant should first demonstrate that she is paid less than a man performing similar work. The two jobs in question should be such as to permit the court to determine that the two workers are â€Å"similarly situated.† The accuser then must prove that her employers decision to pay her less than her similarly designated male co-worker was an act of intentional discrimination. This is a burden of proof not willingly sustained. The ongoing existence of disparities in compensation between men and women has been a mid issue in the battle to attain workplace equality for women. Even before the enactment of Title VII, Congress passed and President John Kennedy signed into law the Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA), legislation designed to assist women in achieving â€Å"equal pay for equal work.† The Supreme Court later commented that Congresss purpose in enacting the EPA was to remedy what was supposed to be a serious and incessant problem of discrimination against women—the truth that the wage structure of many segments of U.S. industry was based on â€Å"an ancient but outdated belief that a man, because of his role in society, must be paid more than a woman even though his duties are the same.† (Corning Glass Works v. Brennan, 417 U.S. 188, 1974). An employer violates the EPA if it pays a man more than a woman who performs a job needing the skill, effort, and responsibility equal to that of the mans job, and the two jobs are performed under similar working conditions. Unlike Title VII, the EPA complainant is not necessary to prove that her employer deliberate to discriminate against her by paying her less. The simple fact that a compensation disparity exists is sufficient to prove her case, unless the employer is capable to justify a pay differential by reason of the existence of seniority, merit, or an incentive system, or as a consequence of some factor other than gender. It appears, therefore, that a woman belligerent of a compensation disparity must be able to establish her case with ease. In practice, however, proving an equal-pay case is far harder than Congress originally intended. A woman seeking option under the statute require not prove that she is paid less for performing a job that is indistinguishable to that of a more highly paid male worker, but she should establish that the two jobs are equal or, as some courts have portrayed it, are â€Å"substantially similar.† EPA cases are often lost because female complainants are unable to establish that their jobs require skill, effort, and responsibility equal, or substantially similar, to those of the more highly compensated male. If the two jobs are unequal in any one of those respects, the court should reject the complainants claim, and—as of the difficulties experienced by women in indicating that the positions in question are equal or substantially similar—the EPA thus has provided little protection for the vast majority of women asserting pay equity claims. To understand how the courts have applied the Equal Pay Act to pay discrimination claims, I will illustrate some cases. Dr. Marjorie McMillan was director of the radiology department, one of seven veterinary departments, at Angell Memorial Animal Hospital in Massachusetts. When a local newspaper published a letter relating to the hospitals finances, it listed the salaries of various employees, and McMillan discovered a disparity between her salary and that of the other department directors: She was earning $58,000 a year, while her male counterparts annual salaries ranged from $73,000 to $80,000. With this information in hand, McMillan sued the hospital for pay discrimination in infringement of the EPA. At the trial, McMillan offered proof comparing the skills, effort, and responsibilities of her position, as the director of the radiology department, with those of the male department directors who were more highly compensated, and she demonstrated that the job requirements for each of the department heads were mainly the same. Her proof satisfied the demands of the Equal Pay Act, and the jurys award of considerable damages in McMillans favor was later affirmed on appeal (McMillan v. Massachusetts, 1998). In a less successful case, Cherry Houck, a professor at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, sued VPI for violation of the Equal Pay Act. Contrary to the approach taken by McMillan, Houck failed to recognize specifically the male colleagues she claimed were paid more than she. She simply testified that in her department, men usually received higher pay than she, although their jobs were basically the same as hers. As she failed to compare her job with that of any particular male in her department, the court was incapable to determine whether she was in fact paid less for considerably similar work. Houcks case was fatally flawed (Houck v. Virginia, 1993). In an Equal Pay Act case, the complainant and her attorney should take care to select the right job for comparison with the complainants. Josephine Cherrey, an â€Å"inside sales clerk† for the Thompson Steel Company in Sparrows Point, Maryland, alleged that Thompson violated the EPA since it paid her, on average, $14,000 a year less than it paid two male employees who she claimed performed considerably the same work as she. Before analyzing the facts in the case, the court recognized a framework to determine whether the jobs to be compared in fact required the same skill, effort, and responsibility. The court stated that if the jobs had a common â€Å"core of tasks,† the inquisition would then turns on whether differing or additional tasks requisite greater skill or effort or entailed greater responsibilities for the workers in the positions being compared. The court used this support to measure the degree of similarity between Cherreys job and the two other jobs in th e inside sales department she claimed were similar. Clearly, some overlap existed in the three positions. The employees in all three positions handled customer sales and complaints, and all three worked to accelerate sales and quote price and delivery terms to customers. Though, significant differences also were present. One of the positions that Cherrey used for comparison was that of her supervisor. But he commonly conferred with upper management and Cherrey did not. Both comparison employees performed functions that Cherrey was not necessary to perform, such as market research and the development of sales strategies. In the courts view, the differences in the requirements of the three positions outweighed the common â€Å"core of tasks,† consequently rendering the positions unequal in terms of skill, effort, and responsibility. This evidence was more than sufficient to defeat Cherreys claim (Cherrey v. Thompson, 1992). Prior to the enactment of Title VII and the EPA, women were paid just 60 percent of the wages paid to men. By 1997, they were earning 74 percent of their male colleagues compensation (Bureau of the Census, 1998). The gains in compensation for women have been regular, but small. The failure of the EPA and Title VII to deal more efficiently with the pay equity problem has fomented interest in amending the statutes, in particular the Equal Pay Act, to ease the required burden of proof. Critics of the EPA have long suggested changing â€Å"equal skill, effort, and responsibility† to â€Å"comparable skill, effort, and responsibility.† In fact, the first drafts of the EPA submitted to and measured by Congress used the term â€Å"comparable† rather than â€Å"equal.† If that language had been retained, the burden of proof would be a less formidable barrier to female complainants pursuing pay equity cases. Based on the history of case failures, an adjustment of the statute appears to be in order. Historically, courts have been unwilling to enter into employer employee frays involving promotions. Even where the existence of flawed promotion procedures is apparent, a court can hesitate to overrule managements decision to contradict promotion to an employee, as that decision can have been based on bad judgment rather than discrimination, and bad judgment, in and of itself, will never ascend to the level of unlawfulness. â€Å"The law forbids invidious distinctions, not mistakes† (Rubin v. Regents, 1988). Unless a workers qualifications, while compared with those of the worker who has been awarded the promotion, are so far superior that the employers reasons for the promotion should be viewed as a stratagem or pretext for discrimination, the worker generally will not overcome, except in instances where she is capable to submit independent evidence of a inequitable motive. Nearly all promotion cases, therefore, turn less on a comparison of a workers qualifications than on the weight of the confirmation demonstrating an offensive employer motive. This approach to promotion cases is well illustrated in Jane Fluckers sex discrimination case against Fox Chapel Area School District in Pennsylvania. Flucker, an English teacher, complained that she had not been interviewed for promotion to a middle school position. The school district argued that an interview was unnecessary, as the selection committee was responsive of her work and had viewed her performance evaluations. The judge that heard Fluckers case stated that if the decision had been left to him, Flucker would have been selected for the promotion: â€Å"As a graduate of Smith College, with over three years experience in the Princeton, New Jersey high school, with a face out of Botticelli and the charm of Southern speech, how could she possibly lose out in competition with a graduate of West Liberty State College †¦ who †¦ had taught ‘Mass Media, Revolutionary Lit., Myths Legends?† (Flucker v. Fox Chapel, 1978) But the mere fact that Flucker was better competent than the successful male candidate did not essentially prove sex discrimination. Though the failure of the selection committee to choose the better-qualified teacher for the promotion can be considered evidence of a discriminatory motive, in this case the court felt that the proof was insufficient to found sex discrimination. The court was not set to declare that Fluckers qualifications for the position were so far better to those of the other candidate that the school districts reasons for not promoting her inevitably had to be considered as pre-textual. Thus, to prevail, Flucker had to proffer the court evidence establishing more than just the shortcomings of the school districts encouragement procedures. She had to offer convincing proof that the actual reason for the selection of the successful candidate was his gender. But Flucker was incapable to offer any such corroborative evidence, and thus the court dismissed her case (Flu cker v. Fox Chapel, 1978). As another judge expressed it, without supporting evidence of a discriminatory intent, â€Å"We should accept the harsh fact that frequent individual mistakes are expected in the day-to-day administration of our affairs† (Bishop v. Wood, 1976) Some employers appear oblivious to the negative appearance they present to anyone reviewing their promotion procedures; their obvious behavior supplies the supporting evidence missing in the Flucker case. However, the wage gap is closing, but women are still lagging behind men in salaries. Between 1960 and 1995, the annual female-male earning ratio increased from 60.8 to 72.0things are getting better, but there is still a 30 percent gap. Again, the more those vocations are female-dominated, the lower the pay, yet women still lean to gravitate to these fields. This tendency has to be a factor, though to what degree remains a matter of debate. Free market advocates are not completely correct when they say that the system is neutral and nondiscriminatory, for years of research indicate otherwise. However, the amount of the markets responsibility is a constant point of disagreement amongst different factions. Laissez-faire advocates put out caution flags when discussing any policy, such as comparable worth, that would manipulate a self-regulating system. Tampering with the natural wage-setting means of supply and demand would threaten the complete economic structure, they argue. If a person is in distinguished demand because of a special expertise, he or she will command a high wage: for instance, a heart transplant surgeon will be in greater demand and, consequently, make more money at a time while there are numerous patients waiting for such transplants. On a blue-collar level, if there are few plumbers in an area where plumbing services are at a premium, plumbers are of course going to receive a good wage. There are, however, some obvious glitches in this hands-off theory, the most obvious being truth and fairness. Indeed, government has stepped in at certain points in history to establish limits on the free market systems autonomy, one instance being Child Labor Laws and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Most people consider this intervention a good thing and necessary for human justice, as it protects children against development and makes blatant job discrimination illegal. A less popular form of market exploitation is practiced by the federal government when it acts to bail out corporations that are on the brink of bankruptcy, as happened in recent years with Chrysler and Amtrak (a practice commonly referred to as welfare for the rich). By acting in this manner, the state has sought to shield the market and economy from the fall-out that would result if these corporations should fail, together with the large numbers of layoffs that would inevitably follow. These cases alone must be enough to justify abandoning the language of free and neutral markets untainted by intervention. However, with the increasing numbers of women entering the workplace, wages will progressively become equitable since this will just prove to be good business. Just as many corporations have sustained to implement affirmative action policies (even though it has become a hotly controversial issue in both the legislature and many social circles) because maintaining multiplicity in todays global market is in their interest, so too can the same argument be made for comparable worth: It may be seen as good for business that women workers feel they are being moderately compensated. Women, sheerly by virtue of their growing numbers in the workplace, will certainly gain more voice and power though it likely to be a slow processperhaps too slow for many.

Methods of Preventing Domestic Violence

Methods of Preventing Domestic Violence Methods of Preventing Domestic Violence Introduction It is almost impossible now to remember the old days when no services aimed at protecting women and children from domestic violence were available in the US. The domestic violence field has changed to a great deal since the early 1970s. However, in more recent years, women and childrens experiences of all the public sector services have been that they are inadequate, with practitioners often assuming judgmental or woman-blaming attitudes. This was the case especially up until the mid 1990s. For example, two key British studies in the 1980s illuminated women's help-seeking efforts at the time and the difficulties and barriers which they faced at every turn (Binney et al., 1981; Dobash et al., 1985). Many women in these and subsequent studies have spoken of trying one agency after another and of the long trek between them to find help, sometimes leading to an ever increasing sense of desperation and disillusion. The previous lack of attention paid to violence experienced by women and c hildren have continued to have their effects, despite service improvements. In the 1980s, there were various attempts to work with women in respectful ways and to recognize them as active participants in trying to stop the violence they had experienced. Nevertheless, women survivors of violence have continued to be stereotyped, very often, in public discourse and among helping agencies as passive and incapable (Aris et al. 12-24). Despite the efforts of the support groups, abused women are still rarely regarded as competent participants in the policy process. This paper, by referring to a number of scholarly articles and sources, discusses and analyzes various methods of preventing domestic violence, focusing on the recent government actions, policy interventions, support group actions, and innovative means of combating this problem. Governments Response to the Issue of Domestic Violence Governments of the developed nations are currently trying to introduce measures to resolve the domestic violence problem. In the UK, the Women's Unit of the Cabinet Office (now named the Women and Equality Unit and moved to the Department of Trade and Industry) published an action plan for violence against women (Batsleer and Humphries 56). This action plan was far from comprehensive, but was a beginning nonetheless. It was accompanied in 2000 by the production by the Home Office of a useful set of Briefing Notes summarizing what works in addressing domestic violence. These developments, among other official initiatives, were important in terms of signaling a new willingness by government to take on the issue. The Briefing Notes detailed both inadequacies in services and also innovative new developments within different agencies and policy agendas (Beresford and Croft 298-300). They provided evidence that, currently, many committed attempts are being made across the field to improve the way that agencies deal with domestic violence. Indeed, the Home Office Crime Reduction Program on Violence Against Women has funded a set of projects aimed t combating domestic violence. In some of these projects, efforts to find out abused women's views have been conducted and satisfaction with services received has increased in consequence. The Cheshire Domestic Violence Outreach Service, for instance, has conducted and published qualitative surveys of what service users think of the service and the project team has acted on the results (Hague et al. 90-93). More commonly, though, it seems that women remain dissatisfied and unsafe even after they have sought help in a systematic manner and made use of all the relevant services that are available. It is not only women who urgently need improved services It is known that domestic violence can have varied and serious impacts on children who witness, live with or otherwise experience it (McGee 34). However, children's voices are very rarely heard in relation to their views about the abuse experienced by adults and about policy and practice responses. Until recently, for example, studies of domestic violence and children in the US used mothers and professionals as their research respondents, although recent work includes consultation with children. The situation is very similar in the UK. A study in the Economic and Social Research Council's Children 5-16 years: Growing into the 21st Century Research Program (Mullender et al., 45) has revealed that children are far from being passive victims of domestic violence. Rather, they use a wide range of coping strategies, often in an active way, to deal with the violence they experience. The research found that children would, generally speaking, like to be consulted about responses, and that t hey can be a rich source of good advice for other children and adults (Mullender et al. 67). However, while there are many new practice developments within agencies in regard to domestic violence that attempt to address children's needs, once again few of these have consulted children directly. Relevant agencies could usefully seek the views of children who have experience of domestic violence (in a sensitive and careful way and where it is safe to do so) about policy and services (Pleck 89). Practical Methods of preventing Domestic Violence Survivor involvement within domestic violence work is possible as long as it is thought about carefully, built into funding, and developed with sincerity and commitment. Sometimes, it is important to realize that it is nothing to be scared of. Rather, the important thing is to give user involvement a try in the domestic violence field, rather than being frightened of rocking the boat or of what might happen as a result. The participation methods presently being tried in various parts of the country are below, and include survivors' forums or advisory groups, women's focus groups and the active involvement of local women's organizations to represent abused women. Special initiatives may also be put into place on a one-off basis and many agencies use established (Pleck 93). Cooperation with activist groups is also a vital component of any consultation strategy, and political and feminist parties have their role to play in raising the voices of abused women and children. Campaigns and activism have always involved projects and domestic violence survivors themselves. The core has traditionally been the social movement of women for liberation and justice and it continues to be so. New and innovative methods of preventing domestic violence: Domestic violence survivors' forums or advisory groups. Active involvement of women's organizations and other women's projects to represent abused women's voices and to act as a conduit for information exchange. General cooperation with agencies representing abused women and children, e.g. women's support groups, campaigns and refuge organizations. Political and community parties. Women and children focus groups. Specific individual mechanisms, e.g. one-off meetings between abused women and senior managers. Questionnaires, surveys and research projects on service user views. Internet consultation. Regular feedback and consultation slots at, for example, domestic violence forum meetings, together with protocols for acting on them. Survivors and ex-service users taking roles as managers, workers and volunteers (Harwin 48-49). Domestic Violence Survivors' forums and Groups One of the goals of the modern anti-domestic violence movement could be to establish consultative groups to help women and children who have fallen victims to abuse. In a few cases throughout the country, groups of this nature which are ongoing have been established over a longer period to provide a structured mechanism for survivors, including service users, to be involved in policy development and multi-agency work (Eschle 20-22). Domestic violence survivors' forums or advisory groups consisting of abused women and children have been established to work together with some local forums. These groups are often also support groups, and can offer an inspirational way in which policy-makers begin to be directly accountable to abused women service users. In some cases, existing support groups may set aside time to look at the work of the main domestic violence forum in the area. In other cases, the group may only meet occasionally and may have been specifically crated to make comments on abused women's needs, on what services are required, on new service and policy initiatives and on progress in combating domestic violence in the locality in question (Aris et al. 60-64). Working with survivors' forums can be a very effective consultation strategy for policy-makers because there is an existing mechanism for accessing women's views in a transparent way. But survivors' forums of this type also have the potential to develop beyond consultation to involve service users and ex-users more fully in the policy process. At their best, they can become accountability committees that can advise on and monitor service development and have a deciding word on policy. Currently, there are a few of these groups in different State authorities around the country and they are usually actively facilitated by an employee. Key Issues of Domestic Violence Prevention Measures One key matter to be considered is who is to serve on a domestic violence survivors' forum or advisory group. How to constitute these groups to make them at least somewhat representative is clearly an issue. Being able to speak for others is particularly important for an ongoing group of this type which comes directly into policy development. There are also important equality issues in terms of ensuring that different communities are not excluded. Formal representation does not seem to work well as it imposes too much of a restraint on the flexibility and humanity needed, but, equally, diversity cannot be ignored. It is all too easy for a survivors' forum to consist of white women only, for example, to the exclusion of other interests, views and experiences (Abrahams 78). There can also be a measure of discomfort in an ongoing group, with participants sometimes feeling that their whole life and personality have been reduced to their experience of abuse. Consultation mechanisms can make it seem as if this is all that anyone else is interested in, so that participating in them can come to be psychologically difficult. One help for this may be consciously and openly to share women's positive efforts to survive, to resist and to find effective help, including for their children. As for other consultation or participation methods, issues of safety and confidentiality need to be considered. This has implications for choice of venues, which need to be both accessible and safe, and for transportation to and from the survivors' forum meetings. To be a member of an established group over time can mean a certain measure of public visibility, and this can be particularly damaging, or even dangerous, for women who have escaped violent partners and who are either a ctually in hiding from them or who do not want their ex-abusers to know where they are. It is important not to exploit participants in these or other ways, especially where the group is expected to meet more on a long-term basis than on a short-term one. One could also ask why forum members should keep on attending over time, unless there is positive feedback and some compensation offered. Some scholars emphasize that user groups require constant effort to maintain an adequate level of membership, and this problem is worsened when the work being done becomes boring. Conclusion In conclusion it should be stated that it is essential that resources are provided for support, training, supervision and consultancy on the one hand, and for the provision of general expenses, childcare, transport, translation/interpreting and accessibility policies on the other, to assist survivors' forum members to do the job (Aris et al. 72-76). Working as a survivors' forum alongside is a complex role to fulfill. It needs support in terms of both resources and, often, professional assistance. An issue to be considered, for example, in domestic violence prevention programs can be crises and personal difficulties for members over time. Groups and organizations need to experiment and to be willing to try new approaches which may or may not work. It cannot be done quickly or half-heartedly. This is especially the case because the underlying cause that has brought participants together, namely domestic violence, is such a painful and destructive one. Partly as a result of these difficult realities and partly because any long-term group is likely to have its ups and downs, there is sometimes a tendency for groups to encounter difficulties in interactions between members. This may require support, consultancy or some other form of help with conflict resolution. In summary, this paper has discussed the innovatory work of domestic violence forums and advisory groups in the developed nations, and the positives, sensitivities and difficulties involved. They offer a helpful way of development and are growing in popularity, particularly in regard to advising domestic violence forums and policy groups. While they can be used as a solely consultative exercise, they also have the potential to give service users real power in the policy process and to lead towards accountability of services to survivors, as in the international examples described in this paper.

How to Craft a PhD Research Proposal

How to Craft a PhD Research Proposal How to Craft a PhD Research Proposal If you are contemplating taking your academic career to the next level and completing a PhD in the chosen field of study, then it is important to begin thinking about how you are going to present your proposal. In this article, we will explain the requirements of a PhD research proposal and walk you through the key steps that you will need to follow preparing your proposal. What is a PhD Research Proposal? Not every academic field of study will require the same format of a proposal if you are applying for a PhD program. In more technical subjects such as science, engineering, or medicine, the institution that you are applying to will most likely follow an interview process to determine whether you will be a good fit for one of their existing research teams. In the fields of humanities and social sciences, research is generally conducted on an individual basis, and it is in these fields where you will most likely be expected to submit a detailed and formal PhD research proposal. Below are the key elements that you should include in your research proposal. Step 1: Title At this stage of the process, this will only be a working title for your subject matter, but use a title that is clear and concisely illustrates the subject of your research. Step 2: Rationale In this section, you should outline the background and rationale for your proposed subject matter. You need to be able to give context regarding the background and issues within which your research will sit. You also need to be able to articulate the aims and objectives of your research. In this section, you should also detail the parameters that you have set for your proposed research and the rationale for setting those parameters. Step 3: Research Question Here, you need to be able succinctly and precisely define the research question that you will be addressing. You also need to demonstrate confidence that the research question you are addressing will be able to be answered within the timeframe that you have available. Step 4: Methodology You need to describe the methodology that you will use to conduct your research as well as the theoretical framework within which you are working. This is quite an important part of your proposal. You need to demonstrate that not only is the research approach that you are proposing is sound, but you also have to address any ethical considerations as well as the practicality of delivering meaningful results from the research you are undertaking. Step 5: Literature Review In this section, you need to demonstrate that you have an understanding of the work that has already been completed on this subject. Acknowledge the main academic contributions that have already been made, and outline how the research that you are proposing will add to the knowledge and understanding of the chosen subject. Step 6: Qualifications This is important to demonstrate that you have the skills and experiences to undertake and deliver this research. Think of this section as your academic CV. Step 7: Publication Research of this nature has value if it is able to be published in a relevant academic journal. Demonstrate that you have considered how your work will be published once completed. Undertaking PhD research is a major milestone in your academic career. Make sure you set yourself up for success by understanding all of the requirements and how to present yourself as a high-quality candidate with the drive and determination to deliver the results required.

Mass media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Mass media - Essay Example In many cases it is the mass media which has represented the drugs in a pleasurable way. First of all, it is important to analyze why the mass media is so influential nowadays. A group of sociological researches investigated that how important is the role of mass media in the modern society and how it is inducing human intellectual and psychological development. In the book â€Å"One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the ideology of Advanced Industrial Society† Herbert Marcuse claims that in modern society people are determined by the information that comes from mass media and technologies (13). This information creates the perceptions people keep in their minds to evaluate situations their face in their lives. The idea is that people have become addicted and are astounded by the images and concepts that mass media have thrust in them. In some cases, concerning drugs, mass media shows people who have used some medical drugs to become healthy and happy, we undoubtedly believe that we will get the same effect if we start using the drugs as well. The reason behind the bli nd trust on mass media is idiom frequently used by media â€Å"Seeing is believing†. We forget the fact that everything is about business which is shown on media even the media itself is the part of the business. It is the biggest tool of manipulation used on the society. Niklas Luhman, in his book Social Systems, explains that communication is the basis of society. Our modern society and social system are highly dependent on mass media; it works throughout all the aspects of society (25). Initially public opinions are formed through advertisement, programs or shows, which are evidently one of the most manipulative effects against personality. In simple context people tend to learn a lot from media in term of what to wear, how to behave, what to look like etc. Luhmann claims that the messages we receive from media can describe the current developmental level the society is

Book report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Book report - Essay Example However, the Chinese artistic traditions were usually only partially valued in the Western world. For example, researchers more often studied Chinese sculpture and paid little attention to such a valuable form of art in China as calligraphy. In this regard, in his book Clunas attempts to compensate for such a one-sided traditional approach to the study of art in China, as for one he describes the mentioned virtual omission by Western scholars of calligraphy as an art form in favor of painting, and even points out that the cognomen "Chinese Art" is mostly a Western concept. In reality, as we learn, for the most period of its history in China artistic sphere was closely connected with its functions, be they decorative, religious, or political in nature. Now contrast this with the notion of a kind of an isolated museum exhibition that may arise from the Western approach to the study of art, and we may understand why Chinese art has not been fully appreciated in the West and what potenti al benefits the approach of Clunas may offer. With the mentioned innovative approaches to his investigation Craig Clunas apparently manages to penetrate deep within his subject of study due to his organic combination of study of Chinese arts in their proper contexts with attention to all their essential aspects, starting from tomb artifacts and up to the Mao Zedong era. Interestingly, with these observations in mind we can also think of Clunas`s book as simultaneously a critical investigation of the Western perception of Chinese art. Let us see how the author tackles the task that he has set before him. This can already be seen from an introduction where, instead of attempts to superficially describe the most important artists and works of art of different periods of history, Clunas rather chooses to elaborate on the plausible historic context that accompanied works of Chinese art. As we learn, it turns out

Christian and Hopefuls escape from Doubting Castle Essay Example for Free

Christian and Hopefuls escape from Doubting Castle Essay Write a critical analysis of the extract (Christian and Hopefuls escape from Doubting Castle) discussing the characteristic features of Bunyans Style. Bunyan uses allegory and symbolism throughout Part one. This symbolism is used very effectively in this extract; we can see the powerful images that relate to the spiritual nature of the characters. Doubt is powerful and Bunyan emphasises the danger and trappings of doubt through dramatic phraseology and strong physical images: A very dark Dungeon, nasty and stinking to the Spirit of these two men. Bunyans dramatization of these events reflects also on the escape from the castle. Bunyan epitomises the ultimate despair in order to generate the joy and delight produced in the escape. This allows the reader to view the hope and joy that is present in the promises of God: there to condole their misery, and to mourn under their distress. And the door flew open with ease, and Christian and Hopeful both came out Bunyan also implements the use of dynamic verbs such as flew this makes the reader aware of the ease with which doubt is broken. The discovery of the key of promise, which frees Christian and Hopeful from Doubting Castle; shows the reader the hope that remains even in the toughest of situations. Bunyan tries to make the reader aware of the danger of doubt through symbolism. This allows the reader to be cautious of doubt in his or her own life. This is typical of Bunyan, as his work tends to guide to correction, encourage and to issue caution: Thats good news, good brother, pluck it out of thy bosom and try. Christians realisation of foolishness has the effect of reinforcing the promise of Hope. Bunyans representation of this in the form of a speech allows Christian to persuade the reader to correct their foolish ways: What a Fool, quoth he, am I, thus to lie in a stinking dungeon, when I may as well walk at liberty? Bunyans use of rhetorical questioning through Christians speech have the effect of encouraging the reader to question themselves. They also challenge the institution of doubt. Throughout part one we see the use of dialogue to encourage or reassure the characters. In this extract we can also view this as Hopeful speaks to Christian and questions his doubt over the situation: ; My brother, said he, rememberest thou not how valiant thou hast been heretofore? This has the effect of not only giving reassurance and encouragement to the characters but also to the reader. The use of pausing ensures that it is well understood. Bunyan uses imagery to create Giant Despair, a large and imposing figure this has the effect of showing the powerful and controlling nature of doubt. However Bunyan also recreates the image of the giant to facilitate the ideas and concepts he wishes. As the escape progresses the reader sees that the large and powerful image is not all that is seems and indeed it eventually leads to its own downfall. Bunyan uses this situation to warn and encourage the reader. It allows them to see that even though trials engulf they never actually succeed. Giant Despair, who, hastily rising to pursue his prisoners, felt his limbs to fail, for his fits took him again, so he could by no means go after them. Bunyan uses the Giants wife, Mrs Diffidence, to show the lack of direction that doubt has. It is created by the person and has no power. This has the effect of showing the reader that there is nothing that is worth doubt it is a formality and should be regarded as such. This dramatic characterisation helps to indicate that hope is important and in the setting of this journey it is hope that eventually conquers the situation. Bunyan shows the despondency and discouraging nature of the castle through Hopefuls speech however he also corrects their self-indulgence later in the speech with desire for patience and reliance on God from Hopeful: Also cut off the bread and water from my mouth, and with thee I mourn the light. But let us exercise a little more patience; remember.. The use of such dialogue relates also with Bunyans reliance on the bible as these descriptions may have also linked with the spiritual needs of a Christian. Bunyan uses the very low nature and despair created by doubt and allows the reader to see that hope was always present even if it was not always obvious to the characters. Bunyans use of dialogue extends beyond the pilgrims to the Giant and his wife, Mrs Diffidence. Then he asked her also what he had best to do further to them. So she asked him what they were, whence they came, and whither they were bound; and he told her. Then she counselled him that when he arose in the morning he should beat them without any mercy. This gives insight to the reader and creates dramatic irony, as the reader is aware of the weakness of the trials. One of Bunyans aims when writing The Pilgrims Progress was the instruction of Christians and throughout this extract we can see the encouragement and warnings that he provides and the way in which his writing reflects the authorial intention of the didactic purpose. Hopeful relates the experience of doubting castle to some of the earlier events in the book such as; the meeting with Apollyon and the valley of the Shadow of death. This has the effect of providing a link between the episodes of the dream, it helps to emphasise the representation of a journey and creates a development within the characters. Bunyan combines many different techniques and forms in the extract but the most effective of these is the dialogue between the pilgrims and also between their tormentors. Then, with a grim and surly voice, he bid them awake; and asked them whence they were, and what they did in his grounds. They told him they were pilgrims, and that they had lost their way. This speech allows the reader to be aware of the characters thoughts and emotions; and to immediately identify the characters motives. This also has the effect of furthering Bunyans didactic purpose. The combination of the many effects within The Pilgrims Progress allows it to be enjoyable to all and make it still appreciated from a literary perspective.

The Physics Behind the Power of an Engine :: Physics Engine Essays

The Physics Behind the Power of an Engine Insert the key, turn, and vroom. And down the road you go. Most people take for granted the strange conglomeration of metal and plastic under that sheet of metal either in front or back of their vehicle. The engine as you may have guessed, is modern marvel- so to speak. They’re found in cars, trucks, boats, airplanes†¦All with various power outputs. To discuss the power output, first the cycles of the engine itself needs to be mentioned. 1.Intake: The intake valve opens allowing fresh oxygen rich air mixed with fuel to enter the cylinder. 2.Compression: The piston is pushed upward by the flywheel's momentum compressing the air/fuel mix. 3.Combustion: As the piston reaches the top of its stroke or TDC, the spark plug fires, igniting the mixture. Due to the high compression of this mixture it is very volatile and it explodes when the spark is introduced. This pushes the piston downward and produces power. 4.Exhaust: After the Air/Fuel mix has been burnt the remaining chemicals in the cylinder (water and CO2 for the most part) must be removed so that fresh air can be brought in. As the piston goes back up after combustion the exhaust valve opens allowing the exhaust gasses to be released. Ideally an engine takes in Air (Oxygen and Nitrogen) and fuel (hydrocarbons) and produces CO2, H2O, and the N2 just passes through. However under normal driving conditions an engine will encounter lean conditions when cruising on the highway (better mileage) and rich conditions when accelerating (better power). The lean condition results in oxide and harmful nitrogen production. Rich conditions result in carbon monoxide production. For this reason catalytic converters are used on an engine’s exhaust. The catalyst material in a cat is in a wire mesh or honeycomb. This allows a high surface area to be exposed to the passing exhaust gasses. The catalyst converts the harmful nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide into nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. Catalytic converters work best when warm, so some car manufacturers are putting "pre cats" in the exhaust manifold to convert the gasses while the exhaust system is still warming up. Engine output is measured in two ways. The first is a direct measurement of engine output: Torque. Torque is defined as the amount of mass that can be lifted a certain distance from the center of rotation. Torque is what accelerates a car.

An Introduction to Cataracts

Abstract Cataracts will affect almost everyone’s vision at some point in their life. Some people may be able to deal with the cataracts with glasses while others must have cataract surgery in order to improve their vision. The paper explains what a cataract is, who it affects, the development of cataract surgery leading to modern day surgical techniques, as well as the possible complications and benefits after cataract surgery. There was once a time that cataracts caused people to become what they considered blind, but now with modern technology and modern medicine people have the ability to proceed with their life with just minor adjustments to their daily activities. An Introduction to Cataracts and Cataract Surgery Everyone has different vision, and everyone has different points in their life where they may notice their vision changing. One major medical condition that can affect a person’s vision is a cataract. It is important to understand what a cataract is and who it commonly impacts, the development of cataract surgery leading to the modern surgical technique, and the possible complications and benefits of having cataract surgery. What is a Cataract and Who is Commonly Impacted? A cataract, simply put, is the cloudiness of the clear natural lens in the eye (Buettner, p. 101). People who have cataracts have trouble seeing sharp figures, often times the objects they see are fuzzy or dim. The cataracts do not form suddenly but progress and get more advanced with time. The natural proteins of the lens begin to deteriorate between the age of 40 and 45 (Newmark, 38). People with cataracts often have trouble driving, difficulty reading, and even trouble seeing expressions on other’s faces. Cataracts can also cause extreme trouble with sensitivity to sunlight and headlights or streetlights (p. 101). Cataracts occur with the normal aging sclerosis, as the lens becomes less resilient, less transparent, and thicker (Gordon, p. 50). In The Eye Book cataracts are compared to wrinkles and gray hair, eventually it is something everyone will get. It just isn’t acknowledged until someone has a lot of the above mentioned gray hair and wrinkles (Cassel, p. 128). Most Americans by the age of 65 have some type of cataracts or clouding of the lens. According to the National Eye Institute, cataracts occur in roughly half of Americans aged 65 and over (Gordon, p. 49). Certain factors can also increase the risk for developing cataracts. The factors include: advanced age, diabetes, a family history of cataracts, extensive exposure to sunlight, smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, previous eye injury or inflammation or swelling to the eye (American Academy of Ophthalmology, p. 1). Cataracts are also found to be more present in women than in men, more common in African Americans than in Caucasians, and more common in developing countries along the tropical belt than in the United States and Europe (Cassel, p. 132). A recent study also showed that poor nutrition also increased the percentage of cataract formation (Guttman, p. 1). The formation of cataracts can also be advanced by the use of corticosteroid use and excessive alcohol consumption (Buettner, p. 106). It is also worth mentioning that occasionally children can be born with cataracts or develop them at a very young age, this is called a Congenital cataract. This can be caused by the mother having German measles during pregnancy, due to a chemical imbalance, or a developmental imbalance. These cataracts are removed quickly if they are determined to be affecting the child’s vision (p. 106). If a person truly feels that they do not see to their full potential then it is in their best interest to consult with their ophthalmologist and have their vision evaluated to see if surgery would be beneficial. What is the Process of Cataract Surgery? Once the patient decides they are ready to pursue cataract surgery a few steps need to be taken. The patient will need to be seen by an ophthalmologist. The patient will have a dilated eye exam with the doctor along with testing prior to surgery. The testing performed is done to determine what power of Intraocular lens, or IOL, should be placed in the eye to give the patient to best vision possible. The testing is often called an A-scan or an IOL Master. The patient may also have a Corneal Topography done if they have an astigmatism. An astigmatism is an irregular shaping of the cornea and the corneal topography is just a picture or mapping of the cornea. The doctor also uses this test when determining which power of lens will be implanted at the time of surgery. Of course before any surgery can take place the patient must also complete the necessary paperwork. Cataract surgery used to be a major surgery, an inpatient procedure with general anesthesia and about a week stay in the local hospital (Gordon, p. 59). The procedure itself was much harder on patient. The physician made an incision about a half-inch long, through which they removed the cataract and replaced it with a thick glass lens and then later an artificial lens (p. 9). Today the procedure is done on an outpatient basis under local anesthesia in about thirty minutes. In fact, each year over 1. 5 million cataract surgeries are performed in the United States (p. 49). There two different ways a cataract can be removed, either by extracapsular surgery or phacoemulsification (Kanski, p. 346). Extracapsular surgery became common in the 1980s when IOLs became more widely used (p . 346). The capsular bag is opened approximately 10 mm and the lens material is removed in one piece. This technique is beneficial for dense and firm cataracts that would be difficult to break up by phacoemulsification, which will be discussed later (Cassel, p. 150). Once the artificial lens is implanted the incision is stitched. The stitches rarely have to be removed, and usually disintegrate over time (Gordon, p. 60). Because the size of the incision on the eye is rather large, healing does take a few weeks (p. 60). This type of cataract surgery can also induce significant post-operative astigmatism resulting from the large incision and the need for stitches (Kanski, p. 346). Phacoemulsification is the newest and most common method of cataract extraction (Gordon, p. 60). The doctor makes a tiny incision, about 3mm long and uses a tool, called a phaco handpiece, that breaks up the solid cataract into tiny pieces using ultrasound. Then a vacuum is used to essentially suck out the tiny fragments of the cataract from the capsule. (Buettner, p. 111). No stitches are needed to close the incision because the incision is so small that the natural pressure within the eye holds the incision tightly closed, and allows the wound to heal quickly (Gordon, pp. 60-61). Another major difference is how the artificial lens is implanted. The lens is actually folded before it is inserted into the capsule and once placed into the capsule it is unfolded. This is done because the incision is so small the unfolded lens wouldn’t be able to fit through the opening (p. 61). The smaller incision makes the procedure safer and provides an earlier refraction postoperatively (Kanski, pp. 346-347). There is also less risk for iris prolapse (p. 347). Phacoemulsification offers good long-term results and in 97-98 percent of all cases there are no complications, when done by a well experienced surgeon (Gordon, p. 1). Following surgery a protective shield is placed over the eye and the patient is sent home with instructions to use postoperative drops to prevent infection and inflammation (p. 67). The patient will follow up with their doctor the day after surgery and then during the following 6 weeks to check the eyes healing (Buettner, p. 112). Former restriction s were placed on patients that kept them from bending and lifting are becoming things of the past. Patients can resume normal activities almost immediately following surgery, of course any activites should be cleared by the patients physician (Cassel, p. 52). Patients will need to wear dark sunglasses following surgery when they are outdoors in order to reduce the effects of glare (Gordon, p. 67). What are the Complications and Benefits of Surgery? As with any type of surgery there is always risk involved when you have an operative procedure done. Although cataract surgery is one of the lower risk surgeries performed in the United States, there are some complications that should be discussed. Some complications can happen during the surgery and some can happen after the surgery during the healing process. While the physician is extracting the cataract the posterior capsule can rupture (Kanski, p. 349). If this happens the patient can be left with long term complications including vitreous loss, an up-drawn pupil, uveitis, vitreous touch, vitreous wick syndrome, endophthalmitis, glaucoma, posterior dislocation of the IOL, retinal detachment, and chronic cystoid macular edema (p. 349). Another serious risk is dislocation of the IOL after surgery, the IOL can become dislodged into the vitreous cavity and is a result of improper implantation (p. 53). If left untreated it can lead to vitreous hemorrhage, retinal detachment, uveitis, and chronic cystoid macular edema (p. 353). A suprachoroidal hemorrhage is a bleed into the suprachorooidal space which could result in the extrusion of intraocular contents, it is an unlikely complication with the phacoemulsification technique (p. 353). Unfortunately, dislocated IOLs are becoming more frequent with the changing IOL designs and it is necessary that those dislocated lens be addressed immediately for the patient’s benefit (Rajecki, p. 1). Endophthalmitis is a rare but serious infection, symptoms include vision loss, pain not relieved by OTC pain medications, a significant increase in eye redness, flashes of light or floaters, nausea or vomiting (Buettner, p. 113). Of course the benefits of surgery are very clear. The patients can walk away with improved vision and also the possibility of not having to wear glasses. Technology continues to improve and there are multiple lenses for patients to choose from. These lenses offer deluxe options such as correction for astigmatism and multiple focal points. This allows people who have never been able to function without their glasses on to have cataract surgery to live their lives without glasses, and in a true sense live a whole new life! The patients that have successful cataract surgery do not regret the choice they made; in fact they likely wonder why they waited so long to make the choice to proceed with surgery. They often times say they didn’t realize the house was so dirty or they had so many wrinkles until they got home from the cataract surgery. It is clear that cataracts and cataract surgery is a very complicated and detailed subject. It should be very important to the patient that they make a wise decision when it comes to their eyes and the care they receive. Patients will continue to see ophthalmology care grow and change all the time and it will continue to get better. It is encouraging to see that through time things have only gotten better and more advanced for patient care. References American Academy of Ophthalmology. (2011). Who Is at Risk for Cataracts? Billig, O. D. , Michael, Cassel, M. D. , Gary, Randall, M. D. , Harry. (1998). The Eye Book: A Complete Guide to Eye Disorders and Health. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press. Buettner, M. D. Helmut. (2002). Mayo Clinic on Vision and Eye Health. Rochester, MN:Kensington Publishing. Gordon, Sandra. (2001). The Aging Eye. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Guttman, Cheryl. (2009, October 1). Analyses Examine Association Between Risk Factors,Cataracts. Ophthalmology Times. Kanski, Jack J. (2007). Clinical Ophthalmology: A Systemic Approach. Philadelphia, PA:Butt erworth, Heinemann, Elsevier. Newmark, M. D. , Emanuel. (2006). Ophthalmic Medical Assisting. San Francisco, CA: Essilor Rajecki, Ron. (2008, October 15). Advances in Cataract Surgery Bring New ComplicationsAlong with Benefits. Ophthalmology Times.

National Health Service in the United Kingdom Essay

The National Health Service (NHS) was formed in the UK on July 5 1949. Its formation was part of the nationalization drive that epitomized post World War II UK which witnessed the establishment of the welfare state and the drive towards production of goods and services for public use instead of profit for private investors and owners. (Yergin and Stanislaw, 1998)[1] Thus reflecting the political economic philosophy of the time, the establishment of a free for all health delivery system within a country outside the Eastern socialist/communist block of nations was quite extraordinary as other systems of health care in most western economies had adopted the insurance system – i.e. pay for health care when healthy and use the care when ill.   Prior to the nationalization of health care under the NHS, health care providers like voluntary hospitals, municipal hospitals (that also provided mental health services), entrepreneurial cottage hospitals and specialist hospitals were already in existence. Local authorities also had departments responsible for health care services like midwifery and child welfare and also had authority to provide health care under the Poor Law. The NHS thus did not commence on a clean slate as these already existing health care establishments were inherited under the NHS. Also, health care for workers was covered under the Lloyd George’s National Insurance Act of 1911, though this did not extend to the families of workers. (Rivett, 1998)[2] Though the role of the general practitioner (GP) had been envisaged as crucial in providing non-specialised primary health care covering areas and activities like home visits and attending to patients in GP surgeries, prenatal and antenatal care, child welfare, venereal diseases, and industrial medicine, the reality of pre-NHS health care in the UK was very far from the realization of these ideals. According to Rivett (n.d.) the NHS in the UK was founded on the following principles: â€Å"The service was financed almost 100% from central taxation.   The rich therefore paid more than the poor for comparable benefits †¦ Everyone was eligible for care, even people temporarily resident or visiting the country.   Anybody could be referred to any hospital, local or more distant. Care was entirely free at the point of use, although prescription charges and dental charges were subsequently introduced Organisation was based upon 14 Regional Hospital Boards that funded and oversaw local hospital management committees.   The teaching hospitals were directly responsible to the Ministry of Health for they served the nation, not the locality.†[3] The NHS has three main interacting parties who have diverse stakes, responsibilities, and expectations in the running of the health service – those who need health care, the skilled personnel who deliver health care, and those responsible for raising money and ensuring that the money is spent properly on the NHS. (Rivett 1998)[4] Undoubtedly, the formation of the NHS has had an immense impact on health care delivery in the UK. For instance, life expectancy for females has risen from 71 years in the pre-NHS era to 80 years under the NHS. Life expectancy for males has also risen from 66 years in the pre-NHS era to 75 years under the NHS. Infant mortality rate (i.e. babies under 1 year old) has decreased from 34 per thousand to six per thousand. (Secretary of State for Health, 2000)[5] In spite of the altruistic principles upon which the NHS was founded, it has faced significant challenges of which finance is perhaps one of the most paramount. Rosenberg (1987) has for instance argued that the â€Å"implementation of developments has often been slower in the UK than in other countries. Partly this has been due to innate conservatism, but mainly it has been the result of financial restrictions.†[6] The former prime minister of the UK, Tony Blair, summarized the problems faced by the NHS as follows: â€Å"†¦ the NHS retains, in its essential values, huge public support. But over twenty years, it has struggled. Its funding has not kept pace with the healthcare systems of comparable countries. Its systems of working are often little changed from the time it was founded, when in the meantime virtually every other service we can think of has changed fundamentally. So urgent was the need for extra money for the NHS that many of the failures of the system were masked or considered secondary.†[7] Despite the apparent inability of the public purse to fund a free for all health delivery system under the NHS, government policy in the UK is firmly set against any form of payment of healthcare by workers as done in other western countries like France and Germany. Leaving healthcare in the hands of the market as in the United States has also been decidedly kicked against. (Secretary of State for Health, 2000) The UK government’s stance may be seen more as a decision of political expediency rather than an economic one, as the issue of free healthcare is a highly charged political debate that is top on the agenda not only of the ruling Labor government but also of the opposition Conservative Party. (BBC News 2004) On both sides of the political divide, it is highly improbable that privatisation of healthcare would be an option. Consequently, the future of the NHS, it appears, would not be based on the recommendations of health professionals and administrators, but rather the manifestos of political parties.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Though inadequate public funding has been the pivotal problem faced by the NHS, it is bedevilled with other problems that affect the ability of the system to deliver a proper service for the demands of the 21st century.   One such problem is the waiting times for care in accident and emergencies (A&E), GP surgery appointments and operations. In 2000, it was expected that by 2005 patients would have a maximum of 48 hours waiting time for a GP appointment, three months maximum for an outpatients appointment, six months maximum for an operation and the halving of A&E waiting times. (Secretary of State for Health, 2000) By 2007 however, these targets were far from a reality. A 2004 survey found that patients in England and Scotland had to wait for up to eight months for a cataract operation, eleven months for a hip operation, twelve months for a knee replacement, five months to repair a slipped disc, and five months for a hernia repair. (BBC News, 2004) Injection of more funds in health care in the NHS has been viewed by some health care professionals as inadequate to solve the problems of waiting times. A senior surgeon in the NHS is reported to have said that: â€Å"The government is increasing capacity by investing money but I’m concerned as a surgeon that the arrangements are not in the patient’s best interest. The individual patient may get their operation done quicker by the NHS funding treatment in the private sector but it will be with a different surgeon from the one they saw in the clinic.†[8] Though by December 2007, there had been significant reductions in the waiting times for inpatient and outpatient appointments, the problem delays in the NHS continues to persist. For example, 91.3% of patients in England waited for under 13 weeks for an inpatient appointment and 8.3% waited for over 13 weeks for an inpatient appointment. Also, 95.6% of patients waited for under 8 weeks for an outpatients appointment by December 2007. (Department of Health, 2008)[9] Evidently, lack of requisite skilled health workers has had an immense impact on the problems of long waiting times in the NHS. Funding the NHS from the public purse however presents problems of recruitment as remuneration has not been enticing enough for health care professionals and for potential training of needed skilled professionals from the communities. As stated earlier, the nationalization drive in post World War II UK precipitated the establishment of the NHS. Thus, centralized administration at the national level is a typical hallmark of the NHS. Over centralization has been identified as one of the major problems facing the management of the 21st century NHS. (Secretary of State for Health, 2000) Administration of a health service built for the population and health needs of the mid-20th century UK is still used for the needs of a country that has witnessed seismic growth in its population and especially in the size of its immigrant populations. Consequently, the organizational growth and modernization of the NHS has not kept pace with both population growth and modern organizational and administrative principles. The NHS today could be seen as a colossal, amorphous entity that that seriously needs a structural overhaul. The Secretary of State for Health (2000) also identifies the following as problematic within the current constitution of the NHS – â€Å"a lack of national standards†, â€Å"old-fashioned demarcations between staff and barriers between services† and â€Å"a lack of clear incentives and levers to improve performance†. (p.10) Thus the need overhaul the organizational structure of the NHS should affect the staff incentives and performance levels and effective communication and networking between the different health services within the NHS. Bibliography and References: BBC News, May 27 2004. ‘NHS Waiting Time Underestimated’. Retrieved February 14 2008 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3749801.stm Department of Health. February 1 2008, ‘Statistical Press Notice: NHS Inpatient and Outpatient Waiting Times Figures’. Government News Network, Retrieved February 14 2008 from http://www.gnn.gov.uk/environment/fullDetail.asp?ReleaseID=349539&NewsAreaID=2&NavigatedFromDepartment=True Rivett, G. (1998). From Cradle to Grave: Fifty Years of the NHS. London: King’s Fund Publishing Rivett, Geoffrey (n.d.) ‘National Health Service History’ http://www.nhshistory.net/shorthistory.htm Secretary of State for Health (2000). The NHS Plan: A Plan for Investment, A Plan for Reform. London: HMSO (Cm 4818-I) Rosenberg, C. (1987) The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America’s Hospital System. New York: Basic Books Timmins, N. (1995) The Five Giants: A Biography of the Welfare State. London: HarperCollins Yergin, D. and Stanislaw, J. (1998) The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World’s Economy. New York: Touchstone [1] Yergin, D. and Stanislaw, J. (1998) The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World’s Economy. New York: Touchstone [2] Rivett, G. (1998). From Cradle to Grave: Fifty Years of the NHS. London: King’s Fund Publishing [3] Rivett, G. (n.d.) ‘National Health Service History’. Retrieved February 14 2008 from http://www.nhshistory.net/shorthistory.htm [4] Rivett, G. (1998). From Cradle to Grave: Fifty Years of the NHS. London: King’s Fund Publishing [5] Secretary of State for Health (2000). The NHS Plan: A Plan for Investment, A Plan for Reform. London: HMSO (Cm 4818-I) [6] Rosenberg, C. (1987) The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America’s Hospital System. New York: Basic Books, p.7. [7] Secretary of State for Health (2000) op cit p.8 [8] BBC News, May 27 2004. ‘NHS Waiting Time Underestimated’. Retrieved February 14 2008 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3749801.stm [9] Department of Health. February 1 2008, ‘Statistical Press Notice: NHS Inpatient and Outpatient Waiting Times Figures’. Government News Network, Retrieved February 14 2008 from http://www.gnn.gov.uk/environment/fullDetail.asp?ReleaseID=349539&NewsAreaID=2&NavigatedFromDepartment=True

The Race to Space essays

The Race to Space essays Space, the last frontier, was possibly the most challenging of all to penetrate. Ironically, the penetration of this frontier came about through a period of political strife known as the Cold War. The Cold War was a time of great political tension and struggle, which followed World War II; it was a time when the world was divided by political beliefs and policies. Continents, nations, and even families were divided by political ideologies. This was an era that spawned many conflicts, conflicts that were unforgettable to those who lived through them. For example, the Vietnam War, and the Korean War are such conflicts. There is a battleground, however, that is perhaps one of the most memorable of all, the space race. During the cold war the United States, representing freedom and democracy, and the Soviet Union, representing communism, attempted to outdo each other through great achievements in space and thus glorify themselves and their political system. This was a period when an o therwise beneficial scientific program to explore a new frontier was lost in a heated political battlefield and new and amazing scientific achievements were drowned out or dulled in the mad world of political focus and ambition. With the Soviets already ahead in the space race in 1957, the Americans were quick to start on Project Mercury to get a man into space. Project Mercury was the first chance for American victory in the space race, especially since the Soviet Satellite Sputnik 1 already launched. The scientific significance of Project Mercury was quickly drowned out in the political chaos of the space race. The Russians were already working on a project to get a man into space and the Americans needed to hastily follow suit or lose face in the political battlefield. American scientists worked around the clock to develop a rocket and capsule that would do the job. Because of the politics of the era, the three main goals of Project Mer...

Bomb and Information

His statement is how the government is manipulating the media about the bombing incident. He wanted to prove me that the government has something to do with the attack and also is manipulating the media with fake or inaccurate information so we can believe whatever the media says. When I first heard about the attack on the media I was so sure that the government did a good Job but Many showed me a video as evidence to reinforce his statement. Now I am standing in the middle of a circle of accurate and inaccurate information, but unfortunately I ant decide who to trust.The media is not always right with the information that they are publishing therefore you cant always trust the most reliable sources when there is a news. To trust the media right after the event it is not a bad idea, but we need to know how to evaluate the information provided. The media controls our minds because they have the information that we are seeking, but we can rate the sources as accurate and non-accurate or incorrect. If you like to watch the news online, you should look at more trusted websites and match the information.Furthermore look for evidence that proves that the information is accurate. View the authors bibliography and make sure the author knows about the topic and somehow has something to do with the topic. During the Marathon in Boston on April 15, 2013 there were a lot of rumors about the explosion. The media was so desperate to find a suspect that they made an unknown number of speculations about people who were looking suspicious to them. At the beginning of the week when there were not pictures of the suspects the media was wondering if the attack was made by an alQaeda group or if the person who did it was related to them. There was an Indian American student who was accused as suspect number two by a website called http://www. Reedit. Com/. The information was declared incorrect after a few days. The general manager of website Reedit Erik Martin apologized in public to the student for the misunderstanding (Alexander). Many reporters were looking for evidence where they can find or identify a suspect. After the attack many pictures were sent to the TV, newspaper, and radio Stations, but there was one picture published onTwitter by a marathon spectator Dan Lampooner that caused an immense rumor. Lampooner posted a picture of an individual on top of the roof off building. The picture rapidly got 2,361 rewets and 620 favorites which is a lot for a picture posted the same day of the attack. A lot of people were alarm because the rumor and the false information of the supposed suspect on top of the roof were spread around by the users of the social networks. The FBI declined to mention on the photo or any other rumor (Brenner).There was a speculation about another bomb the same day f the marathon minutes after the Bombing. This speculation was about a bomb that went off at the JEFF Library in Boston. A Police Commissioner Edward Davis said during a press conference that besides those two bombs that went off during the marathon, there is a third case occurred at the Library and the authorities consider this as related to the attack. During the investigation the rumor was still being reported and the false information was being watched at everyones house even in my house.In the evening of the next day the authorities said, The JEFF incident may not have been n explosion; rather, it appears to be fire-related (Brenner). The reality of the fire on the library was a mechanical fire that broke out about the same time the two bombs went off (Brenner). In the course of the bombing there were a lot of victims involved in the incident, 144 people were reported injured. Unfortunately there were 3 people dead. Martin Richard was one of those who unluckily died while watching the marathon. A lot of different versions of the story were circulating by the news.The rumor was about an years old girl from Sandy Hook that was running the marathon and died while she was running. The media was wrong once again with this information and many people were there wrong information delivered to their housed by the media. Richards mother and his sister were gravely hurt in the attack. This information was declared by Richards father who said My dear son Martin has died from injuries sustained in the attack on Boston. My wife and daughter are both recovering from serious injuries. (Brenner).For the period of the week the FBI were collecting as such information as they could so they could investigate it. Two videos were published about two suspects walking near the place were the second bomb went off. The FBI called them black hat suspect and white hat suspect. On the video, it is well shown how they were carrying backpacks with them. The FBI published the two pictures of the suspects and the broadcast did an accurate Job this time because they posted and shared the pictures with the State of Massachusetts and the entire United States of America.The authorities found the suspects location when they ailed a MIT officer who was on duty. On Thursday, April 18, the FBI official decided to share the pictures of the two suspects involved in the attacks because they knew the media was going to publish it right away. The purpose of it was to get the audience aware and call the FBI or any police department if they see anything suspicious. The FBI received information about two suspects who robbed a seven eleven and shoot a couple times against an officer who was on his car.The police department started the chase against the two brothers Dashboard and Temperament Tsarinas. The police had a man on the ground in Watertown which was suspect number 1 Temperament Tsarinas. The second suspect was still on the run. The FBI, SWAT team, State Police and Boston police had a manhunt looking for Dashboard Tsarinas. The officials were looking for the suspect in Watertown. Dashboard was captured at night inside a boat that was in someones driveway covered by blood (The Telegraph). When you are looking for sources online or watching any news it is always a good Idea to think as a critical thinker.

Dasani water Market Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dasani water Market Analysis - Essay Example The social factors that influence consumers to purchase dasani water include reference groups and social status. Family groups are the most vital purchasing organizations within a particular society. Women have been constantly recognized as the primary purchaser for the family unit. Nonetheless, traditional responsibilities are changing since many women have started concentrating in their jobs while more men have started working from home (Glennon, 2002). Therefore, the buying behavior of this product has been affected by the changes in family buying habits where men have turned out to be the potential product buyers. Additionally, those individuals who are not married tend to buy bottled water because they do not have enough time to treat tap water for personal consumption. The company has realized increased sales among the college students. Majority of them are still single (Franklin & Madalinski, 2009). The social status of customers has also played a noteworthy role influencing the buying habits of Dasani water. Customers from rich and middle class families tend to buy the product while those from poor families prefer using tap water. For that reason, the number of sales recorded from the sale of dasani water has been high in the urban areas in comparison to the rural. The situation is attributed to differences in social status. Personal factors that have influenced customers to purchase Dasani water include occupation, activities, qualities, age, and stage of life. Many people working in offices tend to purchase dasani water because they believe that office tap waters are not clean for consumption (Doria, 2006). In addition, it is often difficult for such persons to access water at the desired time. People involved in rigorous activities such as sports need water to quench their thirst. Consequently, the company has embarked on marketing